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Happiness and well-being depend on how much volition, choice and control people feel they have over their life—their sense of autonomy. Researchers have acknowledged this connection, but there’s been disagreement about whether it’s universal or simply a reflection of the situation in wealthier, more individualistic countries. Understanding this nuance would help policy-makers focus efforts to boost well-being where they matter most.

New research from Finland’s Aalto University has clarified how well-being is linked with autonomy, national wealth and the level of individualism in a culture. The researchers found that a sense of autonomy in one’s life is universally important, but the link with happiness is stronger in wealthier and more individualistic countries.

‘We found that autonomy is connected with well-being no matter what part of the world you look at, but there’s also a cultural element,’ says Frank Martela, a philosopher and psychology researcher at Aalto University known for his expertise on Finland’s happiness. ‘A sense of autonomy in your life matters more for well-being in rich, individualistic countries, like the Nordics, but it might be valued less in poorer countries where other factors are more pressing.’   

Martela explains that the study brings clarity to a long-standing debate.

‘There have been two views on autonomy. There’s a theory that autonomy is a universal human need, so it should be connected to well-being no matter the culture and individual preferences. Others have argued that autonomy is something especially valued in wealthy and individualist countries, while other needs are more important in other contexts. Our study basically shows that both are right.’

The researchers used per capita GDP (PPP) as the measure of a country’s wealth. To measure autonomy and well-being they used data from the World Values Survey, which interviewed nearly 100,000 people across 66 countries between 2017 and 2023. Well-being was evaluated based on the response to two questions, one about happiness and another about life satisfaction, and autonomy was based on “how much freedom of choice and control you feel you have over the way your life turns out”. By analysing all of these metrics together, the team could study whether national wealth influences the relationship between autonomy and well-being.

Determining the level of individualism or collectivism in a country wasn’t so simple. Research into the link between individualism and well-being has produced inconsistent results, largely because of issues with the metrics of individualism/collectivism. That’s why the team used a recently developed metric called the Global Collectivism Index. ‘Other metrics include things like good physical working conditions, which at face value have nothing to do with collectivism. The GCI focuses more on behavioural indicators of collectivism that can be objectively measured,’ explains Martela. For example, the index measure factors like shared transportation or shared households. ‘It’s also not perfect – there’s room for even more accurate measures – but it’s the best we’ve got right now,’ says Martela.

This new, more nuanced understanding can provide better guidance to help policy-makers improve well-being. ‘Because both autonomy and national wealth seem to be important predictors of well-being, the best advice depends a bit on the state of the country. If a country is very poor, then increasing the national wealth tends to be a good way of increasing well-being – especially if this gain in wealth is fairly distributed,’ says Martela. ‘But the richer a nation becomes, the more it should pay attention to autonomy.’

Martela points out that people’s sense of autonomy isn’t just a question of government oppression and legal freedoms. ‘Even work life can be something where people experience more or less autonomy,’ he says. ‘Since we know autonomy is a basic need, we should consider how we can support it on different levels and through different institutions in our societies.’

Publication:

Martela, F., Joshanloo, M. & Krys, K. Autonomy is Associated with Well-being Across the World, but more Strongly in Wealthy and Individualistic Countries. Soc Indic Res 181, 27 (2026).